SPECIAL SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Section II. READING MATERIAL TEXT A. SPECIAL SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Task: read the text, translate it into Russian in written form.
The role of theoretical background for a sociological research is of tremendous importance. In fact it predetermines what we select to examine in the first place and the range of possible explanations available for us.
If theory is understood not only as a system of law-like propositions, but as any set of ideas which can help make sense of a phenomenon, guide, action or predict a consequence, then one can distinguish, at least, four kinds of theory: social (scientific), normative, operational and everyday theory. Within the body of social (scientific) theory we can distinguish the whole range of special sociological theories.
Among special sociological theories there are such as: sociology of everyday life, sociology of education, sociology of religion, sociology of family, sociology of mass media, sociology of culture and so on. The one that has been developed quite recently is sociology of countries in transition.
The concept of transition (transformation) is extremely complex. In fact, it is as complex as the world it is applied to. Before 1989 people divided the whole Europe into simplistic East and West. Since 1989 we can not fully rely on this devision; the world has lost its bipolarity and the consequences are not yet fully understood.
Before perestroyka everything was quite simple. People from the East viewed the West as capitalistic, evil, but at the same time highly developed economically. People from the West, in their turn, viewed the East as dark, obscure and to some extent invisible behind the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall. Invisibility left room for fantasies of all sorts.
Now we speak of Eastern, Central and Western Europe. But this new devision is as simplistic as it was before. The former Eastern European bloc is as culturally diversified as Central European regions. And like Central and Eastern Europe, Western Europe is not culturally unified as it sometimes likes to suggest. There are very different countries also in Southern and Nothern Europe. Europe is not simply moving from bipolarity to tripolarity. Polypolarity determines the complexity of trans-formations.
Central Europe and Eastern Europe are very much in focus. It is inevitably and rightly so. However, we should not forget that Central and Eastern European transformations are not isolated phenomena. We should not neglect what is happening elsewhere in other parts of the globe as a consequence of the sweeping changes we are observing here today. We are experiencing changes of a worldwide scope.
EXERCISES Ex. 1. Read the international words and guess their meaning.
'complex ,universa'listic
ex'treme ,bipo,larity
i'llusion ,tripo'larity
'fantasy ,polypo'larity
,'pluralism interpre'tation
Ex. 2. Give the corresponding verbs:
interpretation, distortion, knowledge, suggestion, trans¬formation
Ex. 3. Give the corresponding nouns:
determine, apply, select, unify; divide, view.
Ex. 4. Match English and Russian equivalents.
1. to predict consequences а. регионы с разной культурой
2. theoretical background b. руководить действиями
3. to make sense с. регионы с единой культурой
4. to be in focus d. предвидеть последствия
5. to guide actions е. быть в центре внимания
4. culturally unified regions f. переживать изменения
5. to experience changes g. теоретическая основа
6. culturally diversified h. иметь смысл regions
Ex. 5. Find and translate sentences in text A in which Passive voice used.
Ex. 6. Correct the statements if they are not true.
1. The concept of transformation is not so complex as it may seem at first glance. 2. The world has always been split into two parts, and bipolarity is still its characteristic feature. 3. Eastern Europe is in the focus of sociologists' attention nowadays.
Ex. 7. Answer the questions.
1. What special sociological theories do you know?
2. What can you say about the concept of transformation?
3. How was the world we live in interpreted before 1989?
4. In what way did people of the West view people of the East before 1989?
5. Can we speak about Western Europe as culturally unified?
6. What changes are we experiencing nowadays?
Ex. 8. Make a short summary of the text.
TEXT B. ENTERING A NEW ERA
Task: read the text, find answers to the questions given below.
Transformation is taking place on more than one level. In particular we experience changes on a macro level (the overall society), on a medium level (the level of organisations and associations) and on a microlevel (personal life of the subjects). And all of them are to be studied.
There are many topics for investigation for a sociologist who studies countries in transition. One may look for answers to such questions as:
- what happened to the institutions which were once integral part of the old structure but were then totally discarded?
- how are individual lives affected when the institutions they lived by, are suddenly denied legitimacy?
- what are the effects when the old worldview is declared untrue and unworkable?
- what does the change mean to different generations?
There might be many more topics for research within this set of problems.
However, some of transformation problem areas may be selected as most important as they are truly characteristic of a new era. Ethnicity is one of them. New positions, roles and alignments of ethnic groups are among the topics of great interest here. We are definitely entering a new era that will be characterised by numerous new socio-cultural alignments inside and outside national boundaries.
Other topics that are of interest nowadays especially for international comparative research apart from ethnicity are: law and citizenship under a variety of political systems; the nature and conditions of prejudice, discrimination and xenophobia; the relationship between ethnicity, labour market and welfare. All of these topics come into one complex problem area that certainly covers all transformation levels: macro, medium and micro.
1. What levels are changes taking place on?
2. What questions may one ask here?
3. What is the problem area that might truly characterize a new era?
4. What will a new era be characterized by?
5. Can you name a society relevant topic for an international comparative research?
TEXT C. THE NEED FOR NEW INFRASTRUCTURES
Task: read the text and render it into Russian.
Scientific cooperation between sociologists of Europe is of great importance. Under new conditions the social sciences are facing the need for a new infrastructure for research and for information and documentation. A close relationship between social science research and social science information and documentation on a society relevant problem area is of strategic importance.
Some time ago there was the European Coordination Centre for Social Science Research and Documentation, the so-called Vienna Centre. A new European organisation, shaped according to the new requirements of our time is the International Social Science Council (ISSC). A considerable number of European cities have declared themselves willing to host its branches.
There are still two more organisations which have weight in the field. They are ERCOMER - European Research Centre of Migration and Ethnic Relationships (it is a Netherlands-based European research centre), and UNESCO in Paris, in particular its Division for Social Science Research and Policy, that recently launched an international programme on research and documentation on the Management of Social Transformation (MOST). It will not be surprising that ethnicity and multicultural society is one of the three priority themes in this programme. The other two are "cities as arenas of accelerated social transformation" and "local impacts of global environmental, technological and economic transformations".
TEXT D. SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF MULTILINGUALISM
Task: read the text and say why English is necessary to study for those who are engaged in sociological research
The European continent is the cradle of the social science. But language barriers prevent important social science findings from circulating adequately. International access to national social science secondary and primary information requires multilingual documentation, particularly in classifying and indexing. It also requires international information exchange policies and networking. There has been a lot of discussion on this matter within the European community. And the problem is evident. It seems to be wise for reasons of efficiency to adopt one language as a universal core language for references from all others involved language areas and as a universal communication language.
Taking the actual situation into account, English may serve well as the core documentation language, forming the link between a number of national documentation systems. Adopting English as the core language in documentation would not imply simple adoption of the meanings currently associated with English terms. Linking national language terms to English terms may differentiate and qualify meanings.
Though one is well aware of the semantic problems which are involved here. Some context-bound concepts are very difficult to identify and to translate. And there is no truth if not placed within the context. However, in spite of such difficulties the internationalization of science requires a common communication and information language. So English is to be taught to young scientists as a subject for their university exams. This is quite simple and evident. English within the university sociological education programmes starts to be a demand.
Section III. LEXICAL-GRAMMAR TESTS
Для того, чтобы правильно выполнить контрольные работы, необходимо усвоить следующий грамматический материал:
1. Видо-временные формы глагола (действительный и страда¬тельный залоги).
2. Неличные формы глагола (инфинитив, герундий, при¬частие).
TEST I
I. Прочтите текст и письменно ответьте на вопросы, сле¬дующие за ним.
Man and Nature
1. The relations between man and nature have become one of the major problems facing civilization today. That is why ecology stands at the crossroads of politics, science and economics.
2. While «blank spots» have practically disappeared from the Earth's geographical map, the «black spots» marking deserts and other areas of ecological disaster are expanding at a frightening pace. Man perfects everything, including his own shortcomings.
3. Our ancestors naively considered the Earth's resources to be boundless and endless. Their ecological ignorance was not their crime, but rather their woe, for it caused the death of thousands of animal species. We shouldn't judge those who lived in the ancient, medieval or even recent times. Man has always had to fight a hostile environment. Even in the 19th century, when the word «ecology» was born, people continued to use nature as consumers. For centuries man has been proclaimed the «lord and king» of nature, and not the child.
4. «Human» achievements in conquering nature became so great that man's activity began to have an increasingly negative effect on the biosphere. For example, forests disappear at a rate of 20 hectars a minute. Today animals and plants perish mostly due to the production of industrial pollutants and the poisoning of the biosphere.
5. Charles Darwin once said that nature cannot lie. Today it is essential that we realize that we ourselves cannot lie to nature. We know that nature is weak and defenceless before man who has grown so strong.
6. Our time is witness to the beginning of «humanized nature». Humanism is today what we need most of all, in politics, in relations among people, and in our attitude to nature. People of different convictions must work together to wipe the ugly «black spots» from the beautiful face of the Earth.
1. What do «black spots» on the Earth's geographical map mark?
2. Are they expanding?
3. What must people do in order to wipe off these ugly «black spots»?
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите 1, 3 и 5-й абзацы текста.
III. Выпишите из 4-го абзаца предложение с герундием.
IV. Преобразуйте предложения из действительного залога в страдательный.
1. More and more higher schools apply linguaphone equipment and television in the teaching process. 2. Environment ignorance is aggravating the conflict between man and nature. 3. Scientists' recommendations encouraged students to take an active part in nature protection. 4. Some colleges have included lectures on nature conservation in their curriculum (расписание). 5. Next year a world-known professor will give lectures on sociology.
V. Раскройте скобки, употребив глагол в нужной видо-временной форме.
1. Life (to exist) on Earth for millions of years. 2. We don't know in what form life first (to exist). 3. Man (to differ) from other animals in many ways. 4. Considerable efforts (to make) now to solve ecological problems. 5. In the nearest future the ecological factor (to become) one of the indices of the work of an enterprise.
VI. Подчеркните инфинитив, определив его форму и функцию.
1. То say that a society is civilized doesn't mean that it has a high culture. 2. Man is the only animal that uses one tool to make another. 3. Man's ability to speak and develop language allows him to share knowledge with other men. 4. They are said to have been conducting negotiations for a long time. 5. I want to be informed of the results in time.
VII. Преобразуйте предложения, употребляя причастие в функции определения или обстоятельства.
1. Management is a part of many processes which determine the outlook of the contemporary world. 2. As he did not understand the rule he asked the teacher to explain it to him again. 3. When the plant installs the new equipment it will raise its output. 4. The new data about the Moon which scientists received not long ago are very valuable.
VIII. Подчеркните герундий, определив его форму и функцию.
1. A Polish delegation arrived in Minsk with the object of conducting trade negotiations. 2. Education in today's world concerns many subjects, all of which are important for living in modern societies. 3. The idea of printing probably came to Europe from China. 4. Inventions during the 19th century made possible the sending of messages over vast distances without actually carrying them.
TEST II
I. Прочтите текст и письменно ответьте на вопросы, сле¬дующие за ним.
What do you call a person who speaks three languages? — Trilingual.
Two languages? — Bilingual.
One language? — American.
1. Americans have a reputation for being global illiterates; only one in ten can speak another language. That does not stop millions of tourists, businessmen, diplomats and journalists from visiting and working in • nearly every country in the world. Americans simply expect everyone else to know their language. Few Americans study foreign languages extensively and few. American schools and universities ask them to.
2. The American predilection for English is hardly discouraged in the country's schools. At least 20 per cent of the nation's higher schools teach no foreign languages at all. Few schools teach languages to students under 12, when they can best learn another tongue. As a result fewer than 3 per cent of all higher school graduates achieve * meaningful» competence in a foreign language. But that is no bar to getting into the nation's colleges: only 8 per cent have a foreign-language requirement. Some colleges permit students to take proficiency exams to demonstrate that they can speak a foreign language — to some degree — instead of enrolling in a language course. Students can — and often do — persuade healthclinic psychiatrists to attest to their psychological inability to learn another language.
3. Not all Americans are monolingual, of course. There are many students who want to learn foreign languages. Some study Spanish, so they can understand the country's growing Spanish population; others want to study the language of their immigrant ancestors.
4. Another reason for an interest in learning a foreign language is the tight job market. «If you have two qualified people applying for a job at an international firm and only one speaks a foreign language, it’s obvious who will be chosen», says Blanche Hamilton, who runs the foreign-language programme in Atlanta's public schools.
5. Increased demand may result in more language courses. But the vast majority of Americans will probably remain monolingual for a long time.
1. Why are Americans not eager to study foreign languages?
2. Are foreign languages taught at all American higher schools?
3. Will the vast majority of Americans remain monolingual for a long time?
II. Перепишите и письменно переведите 2, 3 и 5-й абзацы текста.
III. Выпишите из 1-го абзаца текста предложения с герундием.
IV. Преобразуйте предложения из действительного залога в страдательный.
1. Large distances separate planets. 2. Primitive man made his tools mostly of stone and wood. 3. Modern transport and communication systems have brought the peoples of the world together. 4. This will probably dissolve both, social and physical differences in time.
V. Раскройте скобки, употребив глагол в нужной видо-временной форме.
1. Education is the means by which the young (to teach) the ways to cope with the problems of living. 2. These ways (to develop) by their ancestors. 3. Education (to begin) with birth and (to continue) until death, but it is most important in childhood. 4. In some countries in earlier times, any commoner who failed to use the proper form of address to a superior (to kill) immediately.
VI. Подчеркните инфинитив, определив его форму и функцию.
1. То study two foreign languages simultaneously is not easy. 2. Very often teenagers rely totally on their parents to make a decision concerning choosing a college. 3. Many factors must be taken into account. 4. Belarus is a country to have achieved progress in training specialists in applied mathematics.
VII. Преобразуйте предложения, употребляя причастия в функции определения или обстоятельства.
1. Transport problem is an important question which faces mankind today. 2. Communication satellites have helped to solve major problems of communication, and this saved large sums of money. 3. When people probed into the secrets of living matter, they began to control the development of plants and animals.
VIII. Подчеркните герундий, определив его форму и функцию.
1. Finding an adequate shelter has always been one of man's basic needs of survival. 2. New Stone Age peoples began domesticating animals at about the same time they invented agriculture. 3. The applicant improved his paper by changing the very end of the Conclusion. 4. Their having achieved great progress in science and in machines helped the seventeenth century people not only in getting more abundant food but also in preventing diseases. 5. After World War I the League of Nations was created for the purpose of preventing future wars.
Данная контрольная работа по английскому языку довольно сложная. Контрольная имеет уровень сложности выше среднего upper intermediate. Чтобы выполнить данную контрольную работу необходимо повторить множество тем.
